The origins of Pentecostalism as a renewal movement within global Christianity are a matter of some debate. While some scholars have attempted to trace unusual manifestations of the Holy Spirit’s work beginning in Acts 2 and throughout all of Christian history, most understand the movement — often known as the “Pentecostal and Charismatic renewal” — traces its roots to the beginning of the 20th century. The debate lies in the role of the Azusa Street Revival in Pentecostal history: Did the Pentecostal movement begin at Azusa Street? While Azusa Street was crucial for the development of Pentecostal theology and experience, its inclusion of white, black, and latino/a Christians (both men and women), and its missionary impulse, the historical record shows a much more multi-faceted global origin story for the Pentecostal and Charismatic renewal. Many revival movements in the 19th and early 20th centuries helped pave the way for the massive growth of Spirit-empowered Christianity throughout the 20th century. Pentecostal-like movements had been known in south India since at least the 1860s, with reported speaking in tongues and other manifestations of the Spirit. The ministry of former Methodist pastor Charles Parham in Kansas, USA, beginning in 1895 was important groundwork for the Azusa Street Revival with its emphasis on healing ministries. Students attending an all-night prayer vigil in 1900 at his school in Topeka experienced a revival complete with speaking in tongues. The Welsh Revival (1904–1905) emphasized the Pentecostal emphasis on the power of the Holy Spirit, as did the revival in northeast India in 1905 under the influence of Welsh Presbyterian missionaries. That same year marked the revival led by Pandita Ramabai at her Mukti Mission for orphans and widows near Bombay, where ecstatic phenomena and speaking in tongues lasted for two years. This revival is linked to that in Chile, where missionary May Hoover corresponded by mail with Ramabai in India, who encouraged May and her husband Willis to pray for revival, which came in 1909. The “Korean Pentecost” of 1907–1908 began in Pyongyang (the capital of modern-day North Korea), marked by public emotional repentance and prayer. These events all point to a much more nuanced understanding of the origins of Pentecostalism and, in particular, Pentecostalism’s global essence from its modern beginnings.
In the context of its polycentric global origins, the early dispersion of Pentecostalism in the period before 1914 was facilitated by at least two factors. First, colonial expansion at the end of the 19th century had produced a world in which 90% of the globe was controlled by European powers, the majority of whom were Christian. The British Empire was the single largest of these at the time. Second, the steamship and the telegraph meant vastly improved transportation and communication.
Early Pentecostalism was marked by a desire to spread charismatic Christianity beyond the borders of the revivals themselves. Indeed, a hallmark feature of revivals throughout all of Christian history has been a zeal to spread the message far and wide, to both Christians who have become complacent in their faith and to people who have never experienced Christianity at all.[1] Missionaries — both men and women — moved from Azusa Street, for example, almost immediately, spreading the message of Pentecostal revival to the West coast, Pacific Northwest, throughout the USA, from Hawaii to other Pacific Islands, and from Puerto Rico to other Caribbean islands. Many of these early missionaries believed that speaking with tongues would enable them to communicate miraculously without the need for formal language training (xenolalia). However, this turned out not to be the case, and Pentecostal denominations eventually formed mission agencies like those of mainstream Protestantism that trained missionaries in languages and cultures. Pentecostal missionaries often faced persecution from both Protestant and Catholic groups and were heavily critiqued for their emotionalism in worship that often included shouting and various spiritual manifestations, resulting in attention from the media. These missionaries and their worship services — sometimes invited by congregations, sometimes just sent up in tents outside — were often perceived as being rowdy and disruptive. Some were driven out of town and threatened with arrest and jail. Yet, the Pentecostal movement grew as people became increasingly interested in a Spirit-empowered Christian life.
The growth of the Pentecostal and Charismatic movement over the last 120 years has been in tandem with dramatic changes in Christianity’s overall cultural and linguistic composition. In 1900, over 80% of all Christians were European or North American. Today, that percentage has fallen to less than 33%.[2] This demographic shift has formed the basis for most major analyses of world Christianity in the past 40 years.[3] With the expansion of Christianity in the Global South there has been a proliferation of new denominations and networks, nowhere more apparent than in Africa.[4] In 1900, there were approximately 2,000 denominations worldwide. This increased to 20,000 by 1970 and has now more than doubled to 45,000. The vast majority of these are Protestant and Independent, and within those, many are Pentecostal or Charismatic.[5] The renewal of the Holy Spirit reached virtually all Christian traditions in the 20th century. The Pentecostal and Charismatic movement has grown from just under one million adherents in 1900 (0.1% of the world’s population) to over 644 million by 2020 (8.3% of the world’s population)[6]
As mentioned earlier, scholars have offered differing definitions for Pentecostals and Charismatic. One of the most helpful is the following:
Pentecostalism refers to Christian groups which emphasize salvation in Christ as a transformative experience wrought by the Holy Spirit and in which pneumatic phenomena including “speaking in tongues,” prophecies, visions, healing and miracles in general, perceived as standing in historic continuity with the experiences of the early church as found especially in the Acts of the Apostles, are sought, accepted, valued, and consciously encouraged among members as signifying the presence of God and experiences of his Spirit.[7]
This kind of definition works well for a typology but, for demographers of religion, the main challenge is to build a taxonomy that allows for a comparative quantitative analysis of categories.[8] Consequently, even existing definitions have to be operationalized to be useful for counting. The basic unit in counting Christians of all kinds is denominations or networks with an emphasis on data collected by country. Any assessment of the Pentecostal and Charismatic movement is in the context of the global Christian community. Our operationalized definition takes this into account and asks the question, “Of all the Christians in each denomination, how many are Pentecostals or Charismatics?” This approach leads to first asking questions about denominations or networks (are they Pentecostal in origin or characteristics?) and about individuals in denominations or networks (are they Charismatic in practice?).
The backdrop to this line of inquiry is the bedrock of religious demographics: self-identification. In particular, the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 18, states, “Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his [sic] religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his [sic] religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.”[9] Combining these factors results in coding each denomination as Pentecostal (Assemblies of God) or non-Pentecostal (Methodists), then estimating the number of individuals in a non-Pentecostal denomination who self-identify as Charismatics (e.g., Catholic Charismatics). This would result in a two-fold taxonomy but does not adequately recognize the role of Independent or Indigenous Christianity (especially in Africa) in the overall movement. The final result is a three-fold taxonomy that has operationalized definitions into empirical form. Significantly, the taxonomy is global since it must bring disparate local, provincial, national, and regional forms of Pentecostalism under a single rubric. By being both global and empirical, the taxonomy could be construed as “Western,” but this universal phenomenon, like global Christianity, cannot be reduced to a particular point of view. It is more accurately conceived of as a global family.
The case for the Pentecostal and Charismatic renewal as a single, interconnected phenomenon can best be made by considering a “family resemblance” among the various kinds of movements that claim to be either Pentecostal or Charismatic.[10] The resemblance appears concerning the baptism of the Holy Spirit, the gifts of the Spirit, and the experiential nature of the Pentecostal tradition. The family resemblance metaphor falls short, however, when considering the lack of interconnectedness between Pentecostal denominations and the many loosely defined Charismatic networks that exist today, all of which have differing origin stories. Some trace their roots to the many revivals of the early 20th century, others from Spirit-centered revivals within mainline denominations in mid-20th century, and others yet have only formed in the last 30 years. With this in mind, we turn to a series of common characteristics of the global family of Pentecostals and Charismatics.
One difficulty that has plagued all researchers and historians of Pentecostalism is what to call the overarching movement. Some have used “Pentecostalism” or “Global Pentecostalism,” while others have used “Charismatic.” Still others have used “Pentecostal and Charismatic” or “Pentecostal/ Charismatic.” David Barrett originally used the lengthy phrase “the Pentecostal and Charismatic Renewal of the Holy Spirit,” which he later shortened to “Renewal.” He coined the term “Renewalist” to refer to the wider movement. This book uses the terms “Pentecostal-Charismatic” and “Spirit-empowered Christians” as synonyms for the broadest interpretation of the Pentecostal and Charismatic Movement worldwide. While these terms are not without difficulty (e.g., many non-Pentecostal Christians make equal claim of empowerment by the Spirit), it helps make this movement distinct from other traditions in world Christianity.
The Baptism of the Holy Spirit is a central characteristic of Spirit-empowered Christianity that follows a person’s individual faith conversion to Jesus Christ. The apostles had already expressed faith in Christ before the time of Pentecost (Luke 10:20; Acts 11:17; John 15:3, 17:14, and 20:22). Jesus baptized his followers with the Holy Spirit and promised that his followers throughout the generations would be filled with and guided by the Holy Spirit. Baptism in the Holy Spirit is an experience with roots in Pentecost (Acts 2) and it is understood by some classical Pentecostals that speaking in tongues serves as initial evidence of Spirit baptism. For Charismatics, Spirit baptism is accompanied by receiving spiritual gifts that may or may not include speaking in tongues. In either case, Spirit baptism is considered an essential experience in the Spirit-empowered life.
The phrase “baptized in the Holy Spirit” is found in the book of Acts (1:4–5 and 10:23–11:18). Acts 10 and 11 detail both the acceptance of the gospel among Gentiles and the baptism of the Holy Spirit by Cornelius the Roman centurion, both of which were accompanied by speaking in tongues (or other languages) and praising God. Peter recalls the words of Christ, “‘John baptized with water, but you will be baptized with the Holy Spirit.’ So if God gave them the same gift he gave us who believed in the Lord Jesus Christ, who was I to think that I could stand in God’s way?” (Acts 11:16–17). For Pentecostal and Charismatic Christians, this passage indicates that Spirit baptism is meant for all Christians, in all times. The Holy Spirit’s power and presence comes upon the believer upon having faith in Jesus Christ, regardless of race or ethnicity or background.
Pentecostals and Charismatics use different terms to signify the baptism of the Holy Spirit. It is sometimes referred to as an “infilling” of the Spirit — as opposed to “indwelling.” All followers of Christ have the Holy Spirit within them, but those who have experienced Spirit baptism are more fully consumed by the Spirit. The term “outpouring” is used to suggest an abundance of the Spirit, though not in the sense of one Christian having more of the Spirit than another, just that the Spirit is fully present in those who have experienced the baptism.[11] The “falling” of the Holy Spirit implies suddenness and forcefulness. Another term is the Holy Spirit “coming upon” a person, which expresses an active, continuing gift of the Spirit. It also reflects Pentecostal emphasis on the external nature of the Spirit. Regardless of the description, baptism in the Holy Spirit means that a person is Spirit-filled and Spirit-endowed to empower their Christian life.
Some argue that Pentecost was a unique situation and should not be the enduring example for the faith experiences of Christians throughout time. However, Pentecostals point to other instances in Acts where a distinction is made between faith conversion and Spirit baptism, where the latter was often followed by signs such as tongues and prophecy (Acts 8 and 19). Though Pentecostals make a distinction between conversion and baptism, they do acknowledge it can be a simultaneous experience as long as conversion comes slightly before (Acts 10). Baptism of the Spirit can also be evidence of personal conversion (Acts 11), where salvation is about believing (faith) and baptism of the Spirit is about receiving (power). Some argue against this “second stage” of believing, claiming that all Christians receive the gift of the Holy Spirit at the moment of their salvation. Consequently, becoming a charismatic is more of a spiritual renewal of someone who already has the Holy Spirit.
The term “glossolalia” is derived from glossais lalein, a Greek phrase used in the New Testament, interpreted literally as “to speak in (or ‘with’ or ‘by’) tongues.” Xenolalia, a frequent synonym of xenoglossia, describes “speaking in tongues” when the language spoken is identifiable as one among the over 3,000 known to occur on the globe, unlike instances of glossolalia, which is understood as a private prayer language between Christians and God. Four different passages in Acts refer to this phenomenon:
Though tongues are not mentioned at Paul’s conversion (Acts 9:17), he does mention it later (1 Cor. 14:18), which indicates it could have happened. Speaking in tongues is commonly understood as an immediate supernatural expression of the supernatural event of Spirit baptism. In Acts 2:11, the crowd heard praising in their native languages. Speaking in tongues is a way of praising God that goes beyond normal speech and is therefore considered transcendent praise. In this way, being filled with the Spirit leads to fullness of praise. “Prayer language” as a reference to glossolalic prayer (1 Cor. 14:14) is a recent construct coined by Pentecostal and Charismatic televangelists.[12]
Classical Pentecostals consider glossolalia as initial evidence of the baptism of the Holy Spirit. Representative is the doctrinal formulation of the American Assemblies of God that states, “The baptism of believers in the Holy Ghost is witnessed by the initial physical sign of speaking with other tongues as the Spirit of God gives them utterance (Acts 2:4). The speaking of tongues in this instance is the same in essence as the gift of tongues (1 Cor. 12:4–10, 28), but different in purpose and use.”[13] It is connected to Spirit baptism because speaking in tongues is considered a language of praise.
In the Charismatic tradition, speaking in tongues is not considered the initial evidence of Spirit baptism because the evidence presented in the book of Acts is inconclusive. There is a large variety of spiritual gifts (1 Cor. 12:8–10), and speaking in tongues may come immediately after the baptism of the Spirit or never. Nonetheless, some Charismatics do see a close connection between Spirit baptism and tongues, such as Dennis Bennett (Episcopal charismatic leader), who calls tongues part of the “package” of being a Spirit-empowered Christian.
How does glossolalia occur? What are its effects and significance? Responses to these and similar queries turn on the worldview of the inquirer and the methodology adopted. The earliest psychological investigations viewed glossolalia as the by-product of an unhealthy mind or a disordered personality. It has been attributed to hysteria or hypnosis, suggestion or regression. Some researchers view it as an altered state of consciousness, others as learned behavior or narcissistic self-preoccupation. In more recent research, Pentecostalism has been viewed in a more positive light with the practice of glossolalia associated with healthy normal personalities.[14]
Paul defines “spiritual gifts” very broadly in the New Testament, encompassing both the natural and the supernatural, both the visible miraculous signs that gave evidence of the Spirit’s presence at Pentecost and the deeds of love, kindness, and service that are part of a Christian’s obligation. Though the Pentecostal and Charismatic movement have strongly emphasized the gifts of tongues and prophecy in particular, they have also called the attention of the church to the crucial importance of gifts of the Spirit more generally and, in so doing, have served as an agent of renewal in the last half century.
The gifts of the Spirit point to the multifaceted nature of the Holy Spirit.[15] The Spirit of God is one, yet because the Spirit’s activity is often seen in relation to individuals or specific groups, the multifaceted nature of the Spirit’s power and presence is witnessed. In the best-known statement of Paul on the subject of spiritual gifts (1 Cor. 12:1–11), he emphasizes that “all these are the work of one and the same Spirit.” His list includes wisdom, knowledge, faith, gifts of healings, miraculous powers, prophecy, distinguishing between spirits, speaking in different kinds of tongues, and the interpretation of tongues. There is no indication one way or another if the list is intended to be exhaustive.
Paul’s metaphor of the human body in 1 Corinthians 12:12 shows the indispensability of every part. God has placed in the church “first of all apostles, second prophets, third teachers, then miracles, then gifts of healing, of helping, of guidance, and of different kinds of tongues” (1 Cor. 12:28). The first half of this list differs from the list in 12:7–11 in that it refers not to powers or activities but instead to persons of status in the Early Church. Paul then asks a series of rhetorical questions: “Are all apostles? Are all prophets? Are all teachers? Do all work miracles? Do all have gifts of healing? Do all speak in tongues? Do all interpret?” (1 Cor. 12:29–30). Notably, he leaves out the gifts of “helping” and “guidance” from verse 28 in his rhetorical questions, presumably because these are the least “charismatic” of all gifts that people were unlikely to envy. Nevertheless, Paul seeks to highlight the indispensability of even the “less honorable” parts of the Christian body. In Romans 12, he highlights the gifts of helping and serving and makes no mention of tongues speaking, healing, or miracles. Love is not one of the spiritual gifts. Yet, if love is the motivation of those who help and those who serve in a congregation without attracting attention to themselves, then love must govern the exercise of all the spiritual gifts. When it does, the gifts of the Spirit will be used — without jealousy or arrogance — to unify and build up the congregation, not divide or destroy it.
As a gift of the Holy Spirit, “word of wisdom” is mentioned only once in the scriptures (1 Cor. 12:8), and Paul gives very little information as to what this gift entails. Consequently, there have been many different interpretations of what it is. It normally refers to “a word of revelation given by the Holy Spirit to provide wisdom at a particular time of need, often applying scriptural wisdom to the situation.”[16] The Old Testament provides many examples of various leaders or prophets of Israel receiving spiritual wisdom. Joseph was empowered to interpret Pharaoh’s troubling dream (Gen. 41). Daniel was skilled in wisdom and able (unlike other “wise” men) to interpret Nebuchadnezzar’s dream (Dan. 2). In the New Testament, Paul uses sophia (wisdom) 28 times, 17 of which are found in 1 Corinthians in describing both a human wisdom and a wisdom from God. This latter wisdom is a gift from God and clearly comes directly via the Holy Spirit. It likely specifically refers to “a word, revealed by God, providing direction from the wisdom of God, which may interpret a situation and enable a congregation to move in accordance with the will of God in light of the plan of salvation.”[17] Like other spiritual gifts, it appears in a timely fashion for the common good of the gathered community (1 Cor. 12:7).
The actual phrase “word of knowledge” (logos gnōseōs, or in the NIV “message of knowledge”) is found in the New Testament only once, as the second in the list of nine manifestations of the Spirit in 1 Corinthians 12:7–10.[18] Paul comments, “To one there is given through the Spirit the [word] of wisdom, to another the [word] of knowledge by means of the same Spirit” (1 Cor. 12:8). The gift is the capacity to verbally express either wisdom or knowledge. Given the diversity of references (1 Cor. 2:7, 10; 13:8–12; 14:6; Rom. 15:14) “wisdom refers to divinely conferred revelational understanding of God and his plan of salvation while knowledge refers to an understanding of the practical working out of that plan here and now.”[19] The gift of “word of knowledge,” then, expresses God’s plan in the current context and is perhaps best understood in conjunction with a word of wisdom. In addition, it can be conceived as knowing what God is doing at this moment in another person’s soul or body, or of knowing the secrets of another’s heart. This is a type of revelation related to prophecy (1 Cor. 14:24–25). Having a word of knowledge is also sometimes associated with the gift of discernment.
The gift of faith is mentioned in the list of spiritual gifts in 1 Corinthians 12.[20] It clearly has a different meaning in this context than the faith by which a Christian is justified; that is, this is a gift beyond having faith in Christ that leads to salvation. The gift of faith refers to the work of the Holy Spirit in healing or power and can also refer to faith in God that is manifested in answered prayer. More specifically, “the charismatic gift of faith is a particular intensification of that basic attitude toward God in Jesus Christ by which we accept his saving act, his authority, and his complete trustworthiness, and base our lives on his Word.”[21] The gift of faith is often associated with performing signs and wonders. This gift, as illustrated in passages like Matthew 21:22 and Luke 17:6, has shown to be instrumental in the spread of Christianity by means of miraculous healings and other dynamic gifts of the Spirit throughout church history.
The only explicit mention of the “gift of healing” in the Bible is in 1 Corinthians 12, where it is mentioned in the list of spiritual gifts (12:9, 28) and in Paul’s list of rhetorical questions concerning the gifts of the Spirit (12:30). James 5:13–16 describes a practice in the church whereby someone who is ill or weak is to call in the elders, who then anoint the person in the name of the Lord.[22] James says the prayer of faith — perhaps in reference to 1 Corinthians 12:9 — will heal the sick, and if the person has committed sin, it will be forgiven. In light of the New Testament presentation of healing, New Testament scholar Francis Martin draws four conclusions:
Healing is a ubiquitous feature of the outreach of Jesus in the Gospels as he announces the kingdom of God breaking in through his ministry (Luke 4:17–21). By healing from disease and casting out demons, Jesus both inaugurates the kingdom and embodies it (Matt. 12:28; Luke 11:20). His healing ministry symbolizes the work by which he will heal the people of their sins and infidelities (Matt. 8:17). According to Francis Martin,
The healing ministry of the Church is based on the apostolic commission given to the disciples during Jesus’ lifetime: “He called his twelve disciples to him and gave them authority to drive out evil spirits and to heal every disease and sickness.”… “As you go, preach this message: ‘The kingdom of heaven is near.’ Heal the sick, raise the dead, cleanse those who have leprosy, drive out demons.” (Matt. 10:1, 7–8; Mark 6:7–12; Luke 9:1–6).[24]
Healing and deliverance from demonic powers are integral parts of spreading the gospel, both of which demonstrate God’s intention to lead people into a relationship with himself. As a result, one of the main fruits of healing is conversion. Not every Christian has every spiritual gift and Charismatic gifts of healing are demonstrated by the Holy Spirit through certain members of the church. Healing does more than repair sickness; it makes God present to the one healed and to the surrounding community. A particular challenge concerning the gift of healing is that it can be imitated or faked by evil spirits or by people, even Christians, seeking attention or fame. This demonstration of God’s power can also become a source of pride to the healer. As with all spiritual gifts, it is intended for the common good of the Christian community.
The gift of prophecy in the Early Church is best understood in the context of the Old Testament prophets. A prophet speaks on behalf of another (Ex. 4:10–16). Through Aaron, Moses speaks on behalf of God before Pharaoh. In Exodus 7:1–2, God tells Moses that he has made him “like God to Pharaoh, and your brother Aaron will be your prophet. You are to say everything I command you, and your brother Aaron is to tell Pharaoh to let the Israelites go out of his country.” The person prophesying is not speaking their own words but speaking the words of another — in particular, relying a divine message or instruction from God. In the Old Testament, prophets are also called seers (1 Sam. 9:6–9), which suggests a connection between prophecy, dreams, and visions. Individuals took prophecy seriously, regardless of the avenue in which it was received. In 1 Kings 22:5–6, Jehoshaphat advises the king of Israel to seek God’s counsel, at which approximately 400 prophets confirm his future victory in war. In 1 Samuel 12:1–15, an individual delivers a message from God to a crowd of people, and in Amos 7:10–13, prophecy is directed toward an individual about the king and the nation. Prophetic words are also tested in the Old Testament. If the word was predictive, then the test is whether the prediction was fulfilled or not (Jer. 31:27ff). If the word was prescriptive (Hag.1:1–12), prophets proven wrong are ignored or put to death (Deut.18:15–22; 13:1–5).
Pentecostal scholar Cecil Robeck writes, “The commonly held understanding of prophecy as a predictive word of future events, and therefore as knowledge, has ancient precedence, but it does not provide an adequate basis for understanding this gift. Prophecy more commonly includes components of ‘forthtelling,’ or the conveyance of a message with or without the predictive element.” [25] Prophecy is a manifestation of God’s grace and, according to Paul, should be uttered in faith (Rom. 12:6). Prophets are God’s gifts to the church (Eph. 4:11) and Paul expresses the desire for all to prophesy and exhorts readers to seek this gift (1 Cor. 14:1, 5, 39). All Christians have the potential to prophesy (Rom. 8:9), but only some will receive it (1 Cor. 12:29). Prophecy is also used in Paul’s metaphor of the body of Christ, where each part of the body utilizes different kinds of gifts (1 Cor. 12–14; Rom. 12; Eph. 4).
Like all the spiritual gifts, prophecy should be used as a reflection of God as the giver of gifts, not to bring attention to the prophet-messenger. Prophecy should be orderly (1 Cor. 14:30, 32), tested or assessed (1 Thess. 5:19–22; 1 Cor. 14:29), and limited in some way in corporate worship (1 Cor. 14:26). It is similar to the complementary relationship of the gift of tongues and its interpretation, in the sense that those who do not allow for prophecy to be tested should be ignored (1 Cor. 14:38).
The speaking in tongues at Pentecost (Acts 2:16–18) is interpreted by Peter as a fulfillment of Joel 2:28–29. Yet, because the passage in Joel centers on prophecy, Peter’s correlation links the gift of tongues with that of prophecy. Peter, using evidence from the Old Testament, suggests that prophecy at its most basic level is inspired speech given by God through an individual. In the Early Church, significant figures such as Ignatius (Bishop of Antioch) and Epiphanius (Bishop of Salamis) defended the use of prophecy within such a context while deriding the ecstatic charisma of the Montanists, whose unbridled prophecies were deemed nonsense.[26]
The gift of prophecy is significant in the contemporary global Spirit-empowered community. However, in many denominations, while the gift of prophecy is commonly appropriated by all members, the prophetic message is usually subject to testing according to its conformity to scripture. Some congregations have the preacher/prophet give the “word” to elders or the priest before it is given to the congregation to create a level of accountability for the prophecy. Other churches invite prophets to speak from the floor. The use of prophecy should reflect God’s character; those who are disruptive, refuse to except order, or who place themselves in a position of authority beyond the ability of the community to provide testing are typically ignored.
And yet, while the most helpful test is to check spoken prophecy against scripture, prophecies often have to do with personal guidance and matters of the local church, which may constitute gray areas of explicit sanction. The spontaneous character of this gift has been demonstrated frequently in the church in a variety of sects and new religious movements. Still, the test of Christian authority must be limited by the teachings of scripture as understood by the members of the community of faith as they seek to submit to one another and live under the guidance of scripture as the ultimate written authority in all matters of faith and practice.
The gift of the Holy Spirit described as “discernment of spirits” occurs only once in the New Testament, in the 1 Corinthians 12 list of gifts.[27] Nonetheless, the concept of discernment is found throughout the scriptures. In the New Testament, discernment is in relation to testing spirits or recognizing between that which is true or false. It can also apply to understanding the origins or nature of spiritual manifestations. In addition, discernment applies to evaluating specific prophets (1 John 4:1–3) and prophecies — such as in 1 Thessalonians 5:19–22, which instructs Christians to test prophecy to see what is good and to reject evil. Discernment follows prophecy in the list of gifts in the same way that interpretation follows tongues. While discernment is used as a way to evaluate prophecy, it is also used as a way of discerning the origins and content of any spiritual expression. The Early Church was also careful in discerning the source of so-called prophets who spoke in the “Name of the Lord”; for instance, the Didache instructs readers how to examine someone for false prophecies, while The Shepherd of Hermas explains how to test whether or not a man has an impostor spirit.[28]
Classical Pentecostals distinguish between tongues as evidence for baptism of the Spirit and tongues as one of the spiritual gifts listed in 1 Corinthians 12.[29] Speaking in tongues is the utterance of prayer or of a message glorifying God, typically spoken to God (1 Cor. 14:2), in a language that is unknown to the one speaking it. Tongues can be human languages, such as those heard in Acts 2, but more often is in languages no one but God understands. When part of a church service, tongues should be accompanied by interpretation. Its purpose is for the congregation to be edified and not for the personal benefit of the tongues speaker.
Interpretation (hermenia) of tongues is a gift closely tied with the gift of tongues.[30] In 1 Corinthians 12–14, Paul comments that glossolalia should always be interpreted in the context of a congregation. For this reason, those who speak in tongues often pray for the ability to interpret even though a different person could be given the interpretation of another’s tongues. Interpretation of tongues is similar to prophecy in that it is normally an uplifting message that encourages or challenges the whole congregation. According to Acts 2, the tongues at Pentecost were heard in people’s native dialects (xenolalia). In a case like this, no interpretation is needed. Early Pentecostal missionaries believed the gift of xenolalia would enable them to go overseas and immediately speak and understand foreign languages.[31] Later Classical Pentecostal teachers viewed interpretation as a rendering of the essence of the tongues in the language of the listener. Individual Pentecostal teachers developed further nuances: some expecting the interpretation to match, in length or patterns of intonation, the tongues it translates; or insisting that the interpretation must, like speaking in tongues, be addressed “to God” and therefore be a prayer. In the rare instances where speaking in tongues uses a known language, interpretation is essentially translation. However, the idea of interpreting tongues is much broader, ranging from general expressions of faith to appropriate exhortations for a specific context. Like the gift of prophecy, tongues that are interpreted should have the effect of encouraging Christians to love and serve God.
Just as the Day of Pentecost occurred in the presence of a multitude representing “every nation under heaven” (Acts 2:5b), it is fitting that modern Pentecostalism is a global phenomenon. Despite controversy over the movement’s origins, Pentecostals around the world share many of the same family traits with respect to the baptism of the Holy Spirit, gifts of the Spirit, and personal experience. Whether from Azusa Street, Wales, or South India, the centrifugal force of Pentecostalism has led both to explosive growth with the evidence of charismatic gifts of the Spirit and emotive worship that cuts through class distinctions worldwide. Though the movement has encountered persecution and criticism even from other Christians, Pentecostalism continues to grow and take shape through the indigenous cultures in which it takes root.
